Is fatty acid intake essential for pregnant women?

I discovered that some pregnant women try to prevent consuming any fatty food such as egg yolks, fatty meats, nuts low fat milk and any types of fatty food to prevent excess weight gain. I prefer pregnant women avoid high saturated-fat intake rather than refuse all fatty acid intake because pregnant women should maintain weight gain with a balanced diet throughout pregnancy. Fatty acids are essential for infant tissue development such as Omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (alpha-linolenic acid) which have an AI of 1.4g/day.

Nutrient	Function	Life Stage Group	RDA/AI* g/d	AMDRa
n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (α-linolenic acid)	Involved with neurological development and growth. Precursor of eicosanoids.	Pregnancy ≤ 18 y 19-30y 31-50 y	1.4* 1.4* 1.4*	0.6-1.2 0.6-1.2 0.6-1.2

NOTE: The table is adapted from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu. It represents Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type, Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*). RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed to cover the needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake.

source: http://www.umm.edu/imagepages/19302.htm

Omega-3 fatty acids must be obtained from food. For example, we can find them in: vegetable oils such as soybean, canola, and flax seed oil, fish oils, fatty fish, with smaller amounts in meats and eggs. Omega-3 fatty acids can promote better infant vision and brain development by promoting more mature central nervous systems.

Flax seeds are tiny, but contribute much to a whole food, plant-based diet.

http://perfectformuladiet.com/plant-based-nutrition/five-ways-you-thrive-with-flax-seeds-for-pennies-a-day/

In the “Report of the Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee on the Dietary Guidelines for Americans”, 2010, I found some information about “one prospective cohort study showed that low maternal fish intake was associated with increased risk of children being in the lowest quartile for verbal intelligence quotient (IQ), and increased risk of suboptimal outcomes for fine motor skills and communication/social development scores (Hibbeln, 2007).”

source: http://www.thepregnancyzone.com/prenatal-care/pregnancy-diet/eating-fish-while-pregnant/

In the “Report of the Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee on the Dietary Guidelines for Americans”, 2010, I found some information about “one prospective cohort study showed that low maternal fish intake was associated with increased risk of children being in the lowest quartile for verbal intelligence quotient (IQ), and increased risk of suboptimal outcomes for fine motor skills and communication/social development scores (Hibbeln, 2007).”

However, there is a important thing to remind pregnant women about. Some fish and shellfish contain potentially dangerous levels of mercury such as swordfish, shark, king mackerel and tilefish. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA or USFDA) and The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA or sometimes USEPA) say pregnant women can safely eat up to 12 ounces (340 grams) a week. Similarly, the 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend 8 to 12 ounces of seafood a week for pregnant women. That's about two average meals of:

·         Shrimp

·         Crab

·         Canned light tuna (limit albacore tuna, chunk white tuna and tuna steak to no more than 6 ounces, or 170 grams, a week)

·         Salmon

·         Pollock

·         Catfish

·         Cod

·         Tilapia

Not all researchers agree with these limits, however, citing a study that noted no negative effects for women who ate more seafood than the FDA-approved guidelines.

Resource: http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/pregnancy-nutrition/PR00109

Reference:

The Institute of Medicine (IOM):Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids Released: September 5, 2002

http://www.iom.edu/~/media/Files/Activity%20Files/Nutrition/DRIs/DRI_Macronutrients.pdf

http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/pregnancy-nutrition/PR00109

Resource: http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/pregnancy-nutrition/PR00109

http://perfectformuladiet.com/plant-based-nutrition/five-ways-you-thrive-with-flax-seeds-for-pennies-a-day/

http://www.umm.edu/imagepages/19302.htm

Vitamin B12 deficiency in pregnancy

Vitamin B12, also called cobalamin, is a water-soluble vitamin. Cobalamin is essential using for normal metabolism of all cells, especially for those in the gastrointestinal tract, bone marrow and nervious tissue. The richest sources of cobalamin are in liver, egg, fish, cheese, meats, fortified cereals and fortified soy-based products.

source: http://www.intelligentdental.com/2010/08/26/how-vitamin-b12-deficiency-causes-canker-sore/

Cobalamin is synthesized by bacteria, but the vitamin produced from the microflora in the colon is not absorbed. Vegetarian pregnant women are at risk to develop cobalamin deficiencies because cobalabim is derived from animals.

Vegetarian pregnant women have to know that some plant foods, dried green and purple lavers (nori) contain substantial amounts of vitamin B(12), although other edible algae contain none or only traces of vitamin B(12). Most of the edible blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) used for human supplements predominantly contain pseudo vitamin B(12), which is inactive in humans. (Watanabe F.2007)

Moreover, spirulina is not a resource for Vitamin B12. I read a journal which states that Pseudovitamin B12 (an inactive corrinoid) predominated in the spirulina tablets. Spirulina is not suitable for use as a vitamin B12 source, especially for vegetarians. (Watanabe F, Takenaka S, Kittaka-Katsura H, Ebara S, Miyamoto E.2002)

Source: http://www.sweetadditions.net/health/vitamin-b12-deficiency-symptoms-in-women

Women with cobalamin deficiency may suffer from anovulation, abnormal cell division in the fertilized ovum or a lack of implantation due to megaloblastoid changes in the endometrium.

 Recurrent early fetal loss may also be associated with vitamin B12 deficiency, though rare.

Source: http://www.b12patch.com/blog/pregnancy-and-b-12/vitamin-b12-deficiency-and-pregnancy-part-i-planning-a-baby/

Reference:

Wolfgang Herrmann^,, Jürgen Geisel (2002)). Department of Clinical Chemistry-Central Laboratory, University Hospital of the Saarland, Bld. 40, D-66421 Homburg/Saar, Germany Vegetarian lifestyle and monitoring of vitamin B-12 status .Received 17 May 2002. Revised 19 August 2002. Accepted 5 September 2002. Available online 28 October 2002. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0009898102003078

Watanabe F.(2007) Vitamin B12 sources and bioavailability. 2007 Nov;232(10):1266-74. PMID: 7959839http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17959839

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10552882

Watanabe F, Katsura H, Takenaka S, Fujita T, Abe K, Tamura Y, Nakatsuka T, Nakano Y. Pseudovitamin B(12) is the predominant cobamide of an algal health food, spirulina tablets. (1999)

J Agric Food Chem. 1999 Nov;47(11):4736-41.

Watanabe F, Takenaka S, Kittaka-Katsura H, Ebara S, Miyamoto E. (2002). Characterization and bioavailability of vitamin B12-compounds from edible algae. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo). 2002 Oct;48(5):325-31.

Tori Hudson Vitamin B12 deficiency, infertility and miscarriage (July 2001)

http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0ISW/is_2001_July/ai_76445709/

Protein deficiency in Pregnancy

I like eat boiled egg white, because I like the smooth texture and egg white is complete with proteins providing adequate amounts of all nine essential amino acids.

Source: http://freefoodrecipesonline.blogspot.com/2011/03/eggsthere-is-no-substitute.html

Proteins are one of the three energy-yielding macronutrients. 1gram of proteins provides 4 calories and they are made up of amino acids. The body needs 20 amino acids. These amino acids can be classified as essential, nonessential, or conditionally essential. Eleven are synthesized i-in our body.  There are nine essential amino acids which should be included in our diet because these amino acids cannot be synthesized in our bodies.

Source: http://www.cdc.gov/nutrition/everyone/basics/protein.html

Besides, most plant foods are incomplete proteins which lack adequate amounts of one or more of the essential amino acids. If you are a vegetarian, you can take different types of plants in the same meal to get a combination that provides adequate amounts of essential amino acids for human protein synthesis in the body and prevent deficiency of proteins during pregnancy. 

Source: http://www.cdc.gov/nutrition/everyone/basics/protein.html

Pregnant women should prevent protein deficiency during pregnancy. It is because proteins are important for building structure of tissues and maintaing fluidbalance between plasma and the interstitial fluid. Moreover, enzymes and hormones are made of protein which facilitates chemical reactions and regulates some of the body’s processes.

34 week fetal profile -Fetal profile in the third trimester of pregnancy

Source: http://www.aium.org/patients/gallery.aspx

During the third trimester, protein requirements increase throughout gestation and peak. A pregnant woman and her growing fetus use proteins for growth and maintain a positive nitrogen balance. Therefore, pregnant women have additional protein requirements to support their babies to synthesize material and fetal tissues.

 

Life Stage Group	Energy	CHO	Protein
	(EER)	(g)	(g)
Pregnancy
<18 years	2368-2820	175	25	20-35%
19-30 years	2403-2855	175	25	20-35%
31-50 years	2403-2855	175	25	20-35%

Calcium Deficiency

source: http://www.healthcentral.com/heart-disease/more-images-6926-146.html

In our body, ninety-nine percent of the calcium is in the bones and teeth and 1% is in the blood. Calcium is an integral part of bone structure and has many functions such as activation of muscle contraction, activation of a protein, helping blood clot, and regulation of enzymes.

According to Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010, the recommended calcium intake is:

For pregnant women less than 18 years of age: 1,300 mg/day

For pregnant women 19-50 years of age: 1,000 mg/day

resource: http://www.babycorner.in/parents-checklist/nutrition-for-pregnant-women/

Pregnant women accumulate calcium mostly during the 3^rd trimester.  Calcium metabolism is influenced by hormonal factors in pregnant women that promote calcium retention to meet increasing fetal skeletal growth, formation of teeth and adequate supply of calcium for breast feeding. Calcium deficiency affects the heart and circulatory system and normal bone formation.  For instance, if pregnant women have a calcium deficiency, they not only may develop osteomalacia because of loss of maternal skeleton but it would also affect fetal skeletal growth.

 

resource: http://www.moondragon.org/health/disorders/rickets.html

Osteomalacia will cause the patient to have some symptoms such as muscle weakness and bone aches and pain. Moreover, patient’s bones become soft due to a vitamin D deficiency. Actually, pregnant women consume adequate vitamin D which helps to maintain calcium balance during pregnancy. However, excessive consumption of vitamin D supplements may be harmful during pregnancy. 

According to Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010, “vitamin D is unique in that sunlight on the skin enables the body to make vitamin D. Moreover, you also consume milk and milk products contribute many nutrients, such as calcium, vitamin D (for products fortified with vitamin D), and potassium, to the diet.”

 

Reference:

Am J Obstet Gynecol. Pitkin RM.(1975) Calcium metabolism in pregnancy: a review. The Journal of Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1975 Mar 1;121(5):724-37. PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE PMID:1090175.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1090175

Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research (MFMER). Osteomalacia http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/osteomalacia/DS00935

University of Cincinnati. Osteoporosis. How Much Calcium is Enough?. Last Reviewed: Jul 13, 2010 http://www.netwellness.org/healthtopics/osteoporosis/faq3.cfm

Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010

MoonDragon's Health & Wellness.RICKETS & OSTEOMALACIA.(Vitamin D Deficiency)

http://www.moondragon.org/health/disorders/rickets.html

Health Center. Calcium source. http://www.healthcentral.com/heart-disease/more-images-6926-146.html

Posted on October 30, 2011. Baby Corner. Nutrition for Pregnant Women http://www.babycorner.in/parents-checklist/nutrition-for-pregnant-women/

Iron deficiency

Source: http://www.ezinenewsarticles.com/pre-and-early-pregnancy-iron-deficiency-harms-brain/

During pregnancy, women need 27 milligrams of iron intake a day to make hemoglobin that carries oxygen from their lungs throughout their bodies and her blood volume expands to accommodate the change in her body. Blood tests may reveal low hemoglobin levels signifying anemia. Actually, iron deficiency is very common nutritional disease especially among pregnant women. Iron is very important to help her baby make his or her entire blood supply which is why pregnant women need double the normal iron intake.

Recommended Dietary Allowances for Iron for Infants (7 to 12 months), Children, and Adults [1]
Age	Males (mg/day)	Females (mg/day)	Pregnant (mg/day)	Lactating (mg/day)
7 to 12 months	11	11	N/A	N/A
1 to 3 years	7	7	N/A	N/A
4 to 8 years	10	10	N/A	N/A
9 to 13 years	8	8	N/A	N/A
14 to 18 years	11	15	27	10
19 to 50 years	8	18	27	9
51+ years	8	8	N/A	N/A

Sources: http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/iron/#en1

There are many reasons for iron deficit in pregnant women such as not enough iron-rich food intake in the diet, consumption of foods containing inhibitors of iron absorption resulting in insufficient bioavailability, vegan diet, menorrhagia and anemia during a previous pregnancy are some of the important factors responsible for iron deficiency.

Iron deficiency anemia during pregnancy can increase risk for preterm babies and low birth weight. It is because iron is needed for deposition fetal stores and inadequate maternal iron intake is linked with delivery of low birth-weight infants (LBW) which means their birth-weight is not more than 2500g (5.5 lb). LBW is the single greatest risk factor for survival of newborn babies.

Actually, most specialists in Obstetrics & Gynaecology recommend pregnant women take an iron supplement. Eating iron-rich foods such as lean red meats, poultry, and fish can increase heme iron which is  easier for the human body to absorb than non-heme iron.

source: http://drugster.info/ail/pathography/2393/

Selected Food Sources of Heme Iron
Food	Milligrams per serving	% DV*
Chicken liver, pan-fried, 3 ounces	11.0	61
Oysters, canned, 3 ounces	5.7	32
Beef liver, pan-fried, 3 ounces	5.2	29
Beef, chuck, blade roast, lean only, braised, 3 ounces	3.1	17
Turkey, dark meat, roasted, 3 ounces	2.0	11
Beef, ground, 85% lean, patty, broiled, 3 ounces	2.2	12
Beef, top sirloin, steak, lean only, broiled, 3 ounces	1.6	9
Tuna, light, canned in water, 3 ounces	1.3	7
Turkey, light meat, roasted, 3 ounces	1.1	6
Chicken, dark meat, meat only, roasted, 3 ounces	1.1	6
Chicken, light meat, meat only, roasted, 3 ounces	0.9	5
Tuna, fresh, yellowfin, cooked, dry heat, 3 ounces	0.8	4
Crab, Alaskan king, cooked, moist heat, 3 ounces	0.7	4
Pork, loin chop, broiled, 3 ounces	0.7	4
Shrimp, mixed species, cooked, moist heat, 4 large	0.3	2
Halibut, cooked, dry heat, 3 ounces	0.2	1

Sources: http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/iron/

Source: http://www.healthymeat.co.za/HealthWellness/IronDeficiencyAnaemia/tabid/173/language/en-US/Default.aspx

 

These are some non-heme iron sources and you can eat non-heme iron with vitamin C rich foods that help the body absorb non-heme iron.

Selected Food Sources of Nonheme Iron
Food	Milligrams per serving	% DV*
Ready-to-eat cereal, 100% iron fortified, ¾ cup	18.0	100
Oatmeal, instant, fortified, prepared with water, 1 packet	11.0	61
Soybeans, mature, boiled, 1 cup	8.8	48
Lentils, boiled, 1 cup	6.6	37
Beans, kidney, mature, boiled, 1 cup	5.2	29
Beans, lima, large, mature, boiled, 1 cup	4.5	25
Ready-to-eat cereal, 25% iron fortified, ¾ cup	4.5	25

Sources: http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/iron/

Reference:

Dillon JC. (2000) Prevention of iron deficiency and iron deficiency anemia in tropical areas.   

     The Journal of Med Trop (Mars). 2000;60(1):83-91.

Gautam CS, Saha L, Sekhri K, Saha PK.(2008) Iron deficiency in pregnancy and the      

      rationality of iron supplements prescribed during pregnancy.

     The Journal of Medscape J Med. 2008;10(12):283. Epub 2008 Dec 16.

Scholl TO. (2005) Iron status during pregnancy: setting the stage for mother and infant.

The Journal ofAm J Clin Nutr. 2005 May;81(5):1218S-1222S.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Nutrition for Everyone: Iron and Iron   Deficiency   http://www.cdc.gov/nutrition/everyone/basics/vitamins/iron.html

The Office of Dietary Supplements at the National Institutes of Health Dietary Supplement    

      Fact Sheet: Iron http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/iron/

Ezine News Articles. Pre and Early Pregnancy Iron Deficiency Harms Brain. 29.03.2011.       

       Author: admin. Posted in News  http://www.ezinenewsarticles.com/pre-and-early-pregnancy-iron-  deficiency-harms-brain/

Drugs Information Online. Drugs and diseases reference index Diseases reference index. iron in diet,            

http://drugster.info/ail/pathography/2393/

The Red Meat Industry of South Africa. A food based approach to combat Iron Deficiency         Anaemia.http://www.healthymeat.co.za/HealthWellness/IronDeficiencyAnaemia/tabid/173/        language/en-US/Default.aspx